References

AB 3030: Health Care: Artificial Intelligence (2024). https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=202320240AB3030.

Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education. 2025. Guidance on the Responsible Use of AI in Accredited Continuing Education. Https://www.accme.org/news-releases/guidance-responsible-use-ai-accredited-ce. https://www.accme.org/news-releases/guidance-responsible-use-ai-accredited-ce.

Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education. 2025. Common Program Requirements: July 2025 Updates. Https://www.acgme.org/what-we-do/accreditation/common-program-requirements/. https://www.acgme.org/what-we-do/accreditation/common-program-requirements/.

American Hospital Association. 2025. Health Care Workforce System Under Pressure, Poised for Reinvention. AHA Center for Health Innovation Market Scan. https://www.aha.org/aha-center-health-innovation-market-scan/2025-12-09-health-care-workforce-system-under-pressure-poised-reinvention.

American Medical Association. 2023. Physicians Optimistic about AI in Health Care with Some Concerns. https://www.ama-assn.org/practice-management/digital/physicians-optimistic-about-ai-health-care-some-concerns.

American Medical Association. 2024a. AMA Principles for Augmented Intelligence Development, Deployment, and Use. https://www.ama-assn.org/practice-management/digital/ama-principles-augmented-intelligence-development-deployment-and-use.

American Medical Association. 2024b. Doctors Work Fewer Hours, but EHR Still Follows Them Home. AMA. https://www.ama-assn.org/practice-management/physician-health/doctors-work-fewer-hours-ehr-still-follows-them-home.

American Medical Informatics Association. 2024. AI Competencies for Health Professionals. https://amia.org/education-events/ai-competencies.

Association of American Medical Colleges. 2024. Principles for the Responsible Use of Artificial Intelligence in and for Medical Education. https://www.aamc.org/about-us/mission-areas/medical-education/principles-responsible-use-artificial-intelligence-and-medical-education.

Association of American Medical Colleges. 2025. AI Competencies Across the Learning Continuum. Https://www.aamc.org/about-us/mission-areas/medical-education/ai-competencies. https://www.aamc.org/about-us/mission-areas/medical-education/ai-competencies.

Badal, Kimberly, Carmen M Lee, and Laura J Esserman. 2023. “Guiding Principles for the Responsible Development of Artificial Intelligence Tools for Healthcare.” Communication & Medicine 3 (1): 47. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43856-023-00279-9.

Baker, Monya. 2016. “1,500 Scientists Lift the Lid on Reproducibility.” Nature 533: 452–54. https://doi.org/10.1038/533452a.

Bedoya, Armando D, Nicoleta J Economou-Zavlanos, Benjamin A Goldstein, et al. 2022. “A Framework for the Oversight and Local Deployment of Safe and High-Quality Prediction Models.” Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association 29 (9): 1631–36. https://doi.org/10.1093/jamia/ocac078.

Black Book Market Research. 2025. AI Integration and Shadow IT in Health Systems. Https://blackbookmarketresearch.com/healthcare-technology-reports. https://blackbookmarketresearch.com/healthcare-technology-reports.

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. 2024a. “Medicare and Medicaid Programs; Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act; Advancing Interoperability and Improving Prior Authorization Processes for Medicare Advantage Organizations, Medicaid Managed Care Plans, State Medicaid Agencies, CHIP Fee-for-Service Programs, CHIP Managed Care Entities, and Qualified Health Plan Issuers in the Federally-Facilitated Exchanges (Final Rule, CMS-0057-F).” In Federal Register, No. 25, vol. 89. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/02/08/2024-00895/medicare-and-medicaid-programs-patient-protection-and-affordable-care-act-advancing-interoperability.

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. 2024b. “Medicare Program; Contract Year 2025 Policy and Technical Changes to the Medicare Advantage Program, Medicare Prescription Drug Benefit Program, Medicare Cost Plan Program, and Programs of All-Inclusive Care for the Elderly (Final Rule).” In Federal Register, No. 79, vol. 89. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/04/23/2024-07105/medicare-program-contract-year-2025-policy-and-technical-changes.

Chelli, Mikaël, Julien Descamps, Vincent Lavoue, et al. 2024. “Hallucination Rates and Reference Accuracy of ChatGPT and Bard for Systematic Reviews: Comparative Study.” Journal of Medical Internet Research 26: e53745. https://doi.org/10.2196/53745.

Cleveland Clinic. 2025. Cleveland Clinic Announces the Expanded Rollout of Bayesian Health’s AI Platform for Sepsis Detection. Cleveland Clinic Newsroom. https://newsroom.clevelandclinic.org/2025/09/23/cleveland-clinic-announces-the-expanded-rollout-of-bayesian-healths-ai-platform-for-sepsis-detection.

Coalition for Health AI. 2024. Patient Trust and AI Accountability Survey. Https://www.coalitionforhealthai.org/publications/. https://www.coalitionforhealthai.org/publications/.

College of Healthcare Information Management Executives, and Censinet. 2025. 2025 CHIME/Censinet Healthcare Cybersecurity and AI Governance Survey. Https://chimecentral.org/chime-censinet/. https://chimecentral.org/chime-censinet/.

Collins, Gary S, Karel G M Moons, Paula Dhiman, et al. 2024. “TRIPOD+AI Statement: Updated Guidance for Reporting Clinical Prediction Models That Use Regression or Machine Learning Methods.” BMJ 385: e078378. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-078378.

Colorado General Assembly. 2024. HB 24-1139: Concerning Human Review of Health Insurance Denials. Https://leg.colorado.gov/bills/hb24-1139. https://leg.colorado.gov/bills/hb24-1139.

Dhakal, Prithvi et al. 2024. “Evaluation of GPT-4 on USMLE Step 2 Clinical Knowledge Questions.” JMIR Medical Education.

Executive Office of the President. 2025. “Removing Barriers to American Leadership in Artificial Intelligence.” In Federal Register, No. 8741, vol. 90. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2025/01/23/2025-01953/removing-barriers-to-american-leadership-in-artificial-intelligence.

Federal Trade Commission. 2024. Operation AI Comply: Continuing Actions Against AI-Related Deceptive Practices. https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2024/09/ftc-announces-operation-ai-comply.

Fierce Healthcare. 2026. 75% of US Healthcare Systems Use or Plan to Use AI Platform in 2026. Fierce Healthcare. https://www.fiercehealthcare.com/ai-and-machine-learning/75-us-healthcare-systems-use-plan-use-ai-platform-2026.

Finlayson, Samuel G, Adarsh Subbaswamy, Karandeep Singh, et al. 2021. “The Clinician and Dataset Shift in Artificial Intelligence.” New England Journal of Medicine 385: 283–86. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc2104626.

Gao, Catherine A, Frederick M Howard, Nikolay S Markov, et al. 2023. “Comparing Scientific Abstracts Generated by ChatGPT to Real Abstracts with Detectors and Blinded Human Reviewers.” Npj Digital Medicine 6: 75. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-023-00772-w.

Garabet, Liana, Alexei Kasparov, Marc Minciullo, John Tran, and Medhat Sarhan. 2024. “Performance of GPT-4 on USMLE Step 1–Style Questions.” Medical Science Educator 34: 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-023-01968-3.

Greshake, Kai, Sahar Abdelnabi, Shailesh Mishra, Christoph Endres, Thorsten Holz, and Mario Fritz. 2023. “Not What You’ve Signed up for: Compromising Real-World LLM-Integrated Applications with Indirect Prompt Injection.” Proceedings of the 16th ACM Workshop on Artificial Intelligence and Security. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2302.12173.

Gymrek, Melissa, Amy L McGuire, David Golan, Eran Halperin, and Yaniv Erlich. 2013. “Identifying Personal Genomes by Surname Inference.” Science 339 (6117): 321–24. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1229566.

Hippel, Ted von, and Courtney von Hippel. 2015. “The Time Allocation Effects of Uncertainty: Grant Writing and Scientific Productivity.” PLOS ONE 10 (5): e0127948. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127948.

HL7 International. 2024. SMART App Launch Framework V2.2.0. Https://hl7.org/fhir/smart-app-launch/. https://hl7.org/fhir/smart-app-launch/.

International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. 2023. Recommendations for the Conduct, Reporting, Editing, and Publication of Scholarly Work in Medical Journals. https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/.

ISO/IEC 42001: Information Technology — Artificial Intelligence — Management System (2023). https://www.iso.org/standard/81230.html.

JAMA Network. 2023. Instructions for Authors: Use of Artificial Intelligence, Language Models, Machine Learning, or Similar Technologies. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/pages/instructions-for-authors.

James, Casey A, Robert M Wachter, and James O Woolliscroft. 2022. “Preparing Clinicians for a Clinical World Influenced by Artificial Intelligence.” JAMA 327 (14): 1333–34. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2022.3580.

Jones, Clare, Janet Thornton, and Jeremy C Wyatt. 2023. “Artificial Intelligence and Clinical Decision Support: Clinicians’ Perspectives on Trust, Trustworthiness, and Liability.” Medical Law Review 31 (3): 501–20. https://doi.org/10.1093/medlaw/fwad013.

Kaufman Hall. 2026. Hospitals Face 2026 New Normal: Rising Expenses and Shifts in Revenue Mix. Kaufman Hall National Hospital Flash Report. https://www.kaufmanhall.com/news/hospitals-face-2026-new-normal-rising-expenses-and-shifts-revenue-mix.

Kirchner, Lauren, and Annie Waldman. 2023. How Cigna Saves Millions by Having Its Doctors Reject Claims Without Reading Them. Https://www.propublica.org/article/cigna-pxdx-medical-health-insurance-rejection-claims-without-reading. https://www.propublica.org/article/cigna-pxdx-medical-health-insurance-rejection-claims-without-reading.

Kung, Tiffany H, Morgan Cheatham, Arielle Medenilla, et al. 2023. “Performance of ChatGPT on USMLE: Potential for AI-Assisted Medical Education Using Large Language Models.” PLOS Digital Health 2 (2): e0000198. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pdig.0000198.

Lekadir, Karim, Aasa Feragen, Abdul Joseph Faris, et al. 2022. “FUTURE-AI: Guiding Principles and Consensus Recommendations for Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence in Medical Imaging.” Insights into Imaging 13: 169. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13244-022-01307-w.

Liang, Weixin, Mert Yuksekgonul, Yining Mao, Eric Wu, and James Zou. 2023. “GPT Detectors Are Biased Against Non-Native English Writers.” Patterns 4 (7): 100779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patter.2023.100779.

Local Law 144: Automated Employment Decision Tools (2021). https://www.nyc.gov/site/dca/about/automated-employment-decision-tools.page.

McCoy, Liam G, Sulaiman Nagaraj, Farouk Morgado, Vinyas Harish, Sunit Das, and Leo Anthony Celi. 2020. “What Do Medical Students Actually Need to Know about Artificial Intelligence?” Npj Digital Medicine 3 (1): 86. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-020-0294-7.

MIDRC Consortium. 2024. Medical Imaging and Data Resource Center (MIDRC). Https://www.midrc.org/. https://www.midrc.org/.

Mitchell, Margaret, Simone Wu, Andrew Zaldivar, et al. 2019. “Model Cards for Model Reporting.” Proceedings of the Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency. https://doi.org/10.1145/3287560.3287596.

Mollick, Ethan R, and Lilach Mollick. 2023. Assigning AI: Seven Approaches for Students, with Prompts. SSRN. https://ssrn.com/abstract=4475995.

National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2023. Artificial Intelligence Risk Management Framework (AI RMF 1.0). NIST AI 100-1. U.S. Department of Commerce. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.AI.100-1.

National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2024. Artificial Intelligence 600-1: Generative Artificial Intelligence Profile. NIST AI 600-1. U.S. Department of Commerce. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.AI.600-1.

National Institutes of Health. 2020. Final NIH Policy for Data Management and Sharing (NOT-OD-21-013). Https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-OD-21-013.html. https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-OD-21-013.html.

National Institutes of Health. 2023a. Bridge2AI: Generating AI-Ready Data for All. Https://commonfund.nih.gov/bridge2ai. https://commonfund.nih.gov/bridge2ai.

National Institutes of Health. 2023b. The Use of Generative Artificial Intelligence Technologies Is Not Permitted for NIH Peer Review Activities. NOT-OD-23-149. https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-OD-23-149.html.

National Institutes of Health. 2025. Guidance on Generative AI and Controlled-Access Human Genomic Data (NOT-OD-25-081). Https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-OD-25-081.html. https://grants.nih.gov/grants/guide/notice-files/NOT-OD-25-081.html.

National Library of Medicine. 2024. PubMed Statistics. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/stats/.

National Science Foundation. 2024. Notice on the Use of Generative Artificial Intelligence Technology in the NSF Merit Review Process. https://new.nsf.gov/news/notice-on-the-use-of-generative-artificial-intelligence.

Ng, Felix Y C, Arun James Thirunavukarasu, Helen Cheng, et al. 2023. “Artificial Intelligence Education: An Evidence-Based Medicine Approach for Consumers, Translators, and Developers.” Cell Reports Medicine 4 (10): 101230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2023.101230.

Obermeyer, Ziad, Brian Powers, Christine Vogeli, and Sendhil Mullainathan. 2019. “Dissecting Racial Bias in an Algorithm Used to Manage the Health of Populations.” Science 366 (6464): 447–53. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax2342.

Office of Management and Budget. 2024. M-24-10: Advancing Governance, Innovation, and Risk Management for Agency Use of Artificial Intelligence. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/M-24-10.pdf.

Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology. 2023. Trusted Exchange Framework and Common Agreement (TEFCA), Common Agreement Version 1.1. Https://www.healthit.gov/tefca. https://www.healthit.gov/tefca.

Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology. 2024. “Health Data, Technology, and Interoperability: Certification Program Updates, Algorithm Transparency, and Information Sharing (HTI-1).” In Federal Register, No. 8, vol. 89. https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/01/09/2023-28824/health-data-technology-and-interoperability-certification-program-updates-algorithm-transparency-and.

Parasuraman, Raja, and Dietrich H Manzey. 2010. “Complacency and Bias in Human Use of Automation: An Updated Understanding.” Human Factors 52 (3): 381–410. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018720810376055.

Pew Research Center. 2023. Americans’ Views of Artificial Intelligence Use in Health Care. Https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2023/02/22/60-of-americans-would-be-uncomfortable-with-provider-relying-on-ai-in-their-own-health-care/. https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2023/02/22/60-of-americans-would-be-uncomfortable-with-provider-relying-on-ai-in-their-own-health-care/.

Polubriaginof, Fernanda C G et al. 2024. “Implementation of a Generative Artificial Intelligence Solution for Patient Message Drafting in an Academic Medical Center.” JAMIA Open, ahead of print. https://doi.org/10.1093/jamiaopen/ooae024.

Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 of the European Parliament and of the Council on Artificial Intelligence (Artificial Intelligence Act) (2024). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=OJ:L_202401689.

SB 24-205: Consumer Protections for Artificial Intelligence (2024). https://leg.colorado.gov/bills/sb24-205.

Sendak, Mark P, William Ratliff, Dina Sarro, et al. 2020. “Real-World Integration of a Sepsis Deep Learning Technology into Routine Clinical Care: Implementation Study.” JMIR Medical Informatics 8 (7): e15182. https://doi.org/10.2196/15182.

Singhal, Karan, Shekoofeh Azizi, Tao Tu, et al. 2023. “Large Language Models Encode Clinical Knowledge.” Nature 620: 172–80. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06291-2.

Thirunavukarasu, Arun James, Darren Shu Jeng Ting, Kabilan Elangovan, Laura Gutierrez, Ting Fang Tan, and Daniel Shu Wei Ting. 2023. “Large Language Models in Medicine.” Nature Medicine 29: 1930–40. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02448-8.

Tierney, Aaron A, Shreya Bhatt, Aakash Houndie, et al. 2024. “Ambient Artificial Intelligence Scribes to Alleviate the Burden of Clinical Documentation.” NEJM Catalyst Innovations in Care Delivery 5 (1): CAT.23.0404. https://doi.org/10.1056/CAT.23.0404.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office for Civil Rights. 2012. Guidance Regarding Methods for de-Identification of Protected Health Information in Accordance with the HIPAA Privacy Rule. https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/privacy/special-topics/de-identification/index.html.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office for Civil Rights. 2024a. Nondiscrimination in Health Programs and Activities (45 C.F.R. § 92.210). 89 FR 37522. https://www.federalregister.gov/d/2024-08967. https://www.federalregister.gov/d/2024-08967.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office for Civil Rights. 2024b. Section 1557: Nondiscrimination in Health Programs and Activities (Final Rule). https://www.hhs.gov/civil-rights/for-individuals/section-1557/index.html.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General. 2022. Addressing Health Worker Burnout: The U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory on Building a Thriving Health Workforce. Https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/reports-and-publications/health-worker-burnout/index.html. https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/reports-and-publications/health-worker-burnout/index.html.

U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. 2024. Strategic Enforcement Plan Fiscal Years 2024-2028. https://www.eeoc.gov/strategic-enforcement-plan-fiscal-years-2024-2028.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2024. Marketing Submission Recommendations for a Predetermined Change Control Plan for Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning-Enabled Device Software Functions. https://www.fda.gov/regulatory-information/search-fda-guidance-documents/marketing-submission-recommendations-predetermined-change-control-plan-aiml-enabled-device-software.

U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Health Canada, and UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. 2021. Good Machine Learning Practice for Medical Device Development: Guiding Principles. Https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/software-medical-device-samd/good-machine-learning-practice-medical-device-development-guiding-principles. https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/software-medical-device-samd/good-machine-learning-practice-medical-device-development-guiding-principles.

U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs. 2024. AI in Medicare Advantage: A Review of Care Denials. Https://www.hsgac.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024-Senate-MA-AI-Report.pdf. https://www.hsgac.senate.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024-Senate-MA-AI-Report.pdf.

Vasey, Baptiste, Myura Nagendran, Bruce Campbell, et al. 2022. “Reporting Guideline for the Early-Stage Clinical Evaluation of Decision Support Systems Driven by Artificial Intelligence: DECIDE-AI.” Nature Medicine 28: 924–33. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-022-01772-9.

Washington State Legislature. 2023. My Health MY Data Act. RCW 19.373. https://app.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=19.373. https://app.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=19.373.

Wiens, Jenna, Suchi Saria, Mark Sendak, et al. 2019. “Do No Harm: A Roadmap for Responsible Machine Learning for Health Care.” Nature Medicine 25: 1337–40. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-019-0548-6.

Wolters Kluwer. 2025. Survey: Generative AI in Healthcare — Clinician Use and Risks. Https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/news/survey-reveals-doctors-using-ai. https://www.wolterskluwer.com/en/news/survey-reveals-doctors-using-ai.

Wong, Andrew, Erkin Otles, John P Donnelly, et al. 2021. “External Validation of a Widely Implemented Proprietary Sepsis Prediction Model in Hospitalized Patients.” JAMA Internal Medicine 181 (8): 1065–70. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2021.2626.

World Health Organization. 2024. Ethics and Governance of Artificial Intelligence for Health. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240029200.

Yaneva, Victoria et al. 2024. “Evaluating GPT-4 on USMLE Step 2 CK: Implications for Clinical Reasoning Assessment.” Academic Medicine.

Zack, Travis, Eric Lehman, Mirac Suzgun, et al. 2024. “Assessing the Potential of GPT-4 to Perpetuate Racial and Gender Biases in Health Care: A Model Evaluation Study.” The Lancet Digital Health 6 (1): e12–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2589-7500(23)00225-X.

Zemmar, Adjmal, Andres M Lozano, and Bradley J Nelson. 2023. “The Ethical Imperative for the Use of Artificial Intelligence in Surgery.” Nature Machine Intelligence 5: 1184–90. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42256-023-00742-6.